Fig. 1

Risk Factors for SLE and the consensus on the magnitude. Abbreviations: SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus. SR, systematic review. MR, Mendelian randomization. AMSTAR-2, Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews 2. TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α. TNFAIP3, Tumor necrosis factor-α-induced protein 3. TNFSF4, Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 4. IL, Interleukin. HLA, Human leukocyte antigen. IRF5, Interferon regulatory factor 5. STAT4, Signal transducer and activator of transcription 4. ITGAM, Integrin Subunit Alpha M. Annotation: Determination on the magnitude for the risk factors: a systematic reviews: based on a consensus after considering the evidence from (i). The number of literature, (ii). The average score of AMSTAR-2 (no score added for e critically low, 1 score for low, 3 scores for moderate, and 5 scores for high quality), and iii. The consistency of the results (1 score for factors with a number of ≥ 3 and consistent results, inconsistent results with a number of ≥ 2 minus 1 score). b Mendelian randomization: based on a consensus after considering the evidence from (i). The number of literature, (ii). The consistency of results (2 scores if the results of inverse variance weighted, weighted median, and MR Egger are consistent, otherwise no score), and (iii). Sensitivity tests (no horizontal pleiotropy is counted as 1 score, otherwise no score). If the risk factors involved both SR and MR studies, the scores were added if the results were consistent and subtracted if the results were not consistent. Score the SR and MR studies according to the above criteria and label low, medium, and high after the score (“low” for scores 1 and 2, “medium” for scores 3 and 4, and “high” for 5 and above.), and finally summarize the risk factors and related magnitude of SLE